Joseph Smith declared his candidacy in the 1844 presidential race as a political reformer on an independent ticket. Joseph never gave his own movement an official name; he believed that all political parties were degraded, their leaders corrupt, and that the entire United States government was in need of reform. In print and from the pulpit he advocated a return to the “holy principles of ’76,” the republican ideals espoused by America’s founding fathers. Smith’s supporters established a political newspaper in New York City, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Truth. Its editors reported on Jeffersonian conventions promoting...

The early to mid-nineteenth century was a time of constant and rapid change for most Americans. The period witnessed an explosion of religious fervor throughout the northern states, with scores of new religious movements all claiming exclusive authority from God; westward territorial expansion of Anglo-Protestant civilization accompanied by the displacement of native populations; the increasingly problematic position of black slavery in American society; the proposed annexation of Texas; the proliferation of urban centers and a dramatic increase in manufacturing; and the dominance of the two-party system in American politics. Some saw in these developments the glimmerings of a perfectible society....

The 1844 Whig campaign for the American presidency is best understood as a refinement of strategies developed during the successful 1840 presidential bid of William Henry Harrison. Many of the same individuals figured prominently in both races.

Horace Greeley, founding editor of theNew York Tribune, in large part responsible for Harrison’s success in 1840, became one of Clay’s most powerful supporters in 1844. Greeley published the widely distributedJunius Tracts, which included partisan critiques of political issues (such as the annexation of Texas) as well as a life of Henry Clay. He also issued theClay Tribune, Clay’s national...

In 1843, the economy of Illinois had not yet recovered from the economic decline of the late 1830s. The state suffered from a crushing public debt burden brought on by a succession of Democratic administrations and the limitations of a barely functioning money economy with almost no gold or silver coin in circulation. Paper currency was accepted only at a steep discount. These conditions favored a Whig revival with a promise of “relief and reform.”

When congressional redistricting was completed in early 1843, Illinois was divided into seven nearly equal precincts. John J. Hardin’s drive to represent Illinois’s newly formed...

When the results of the Sixth District congressional elections were published, “everything connected with the Mormons became political,” and marked the beginning of an uneasy alliance between Illinois Whigs and Democrats in opposition to Joseph Smith’s autocratic rule. Internal dissent at Nauvoo also threatened to hasten the downfall of the Mormon prophet.²

William Law was not alone in his outspoken criticism of Hyrum’s political revelation and the deliberateness with which Joseph Smith had manipulated the Mormon vote to favor the Democrats. “The Mormons now have all the power, elect whom they please and have taken the entire government of the...

Henry Clay sealed his letter of October 5 and marked it “Confidential.” It was addressed to former Ohio governor Thomas Corwin, then residing in his hometown of Lebanon, seat of Warren County, northeast of Cincinnati. “I have not been unaware of the project of bringing out J[ohn] McLean” as the Whig presidential nominee, “by my retirement either voluntary or compulsively, of Judge [Jacob] Burnett and Judge [John C.] Wright concurring in it,” Clay confided to his old friend. “But I did not suppose that the latter would hold such opposite language in his paper and in his oral communications.”¹

Thomas...

Several days before the Illinois Whig State Convention in December, Quincy attorney Orville Hickman Browning assured his longtime friend, Congressman John J. Hardin, that he needn’t worry about the August 1843 defeat of Cyrus Walker (due to the last-minute awarding of the Mormon vote to the Democrats) or even his own loss (withMormon support) to Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. “We are nothing daunted by the disasters of the past year,” Browning wrote, “and do not despair of being able to give even this State to the Great Kentuckian.” Browning was certain that “Van Buren can never get the strength...

Joseph Smith’s November 1843 inquiry to presidential hopefuls summoned a predictable response from Democratic senator John C. Calhoun. “As you refer to the case of Missouri,” responded the South Carolinian, “candor compels me to repeat what I said to you at Washington,” in 1839, “that, according to my views, the case does not come within the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, which is one of limited and specific powers.” Joseph requested one of his political writers, William W. Phelps, to draft a response, highlighting “the folly of keeping p[e]ople out of their right[s] and that therewaspower in government...

“What I have said in my ‘Views’ in relation to the annexation of Texas is with some unpopular,” Joseph continued in his remarks before the Temple Committee on the afternoon of March 7. Everyone in attendance knew the Texas question was one of the major issues in the 1844 presidential campaign. “They object to Texas on account of slavery,” Joseph pointed out. The first American settlers in Texas were slave owners. If admitted to the Union, Texas would more than likely become a slave state. Northern Whigs were opposed to annexation on this ground alone. “Why, it is the very...

The Whig National Convention convened in Baltimore at the Universalist Church on May 1, 1844. A roll call just before noon confirmed that all twenty-five states in the Union were represented. Ambrose Spencer, of New York, was selected as president of the convention. Vice presidents represented each state. Jacob Burnet led the Ohio delegation. The Illinois representation included George T. M. Davis. John J. Hardin was also present, although not as an official delegate. Horace Greeley conferred with his fellow Whigs and reported on the convention proceedings.

A representative from Virginia addressed the convention. In his view, “The voice of...

Throughout the month of May political missionaries departed Nauvoo. The movement was unprecedented. “At no period since the organization of the church,” George Miller would write, “had there been half so many elders in the vineyard, in proportion to the number of members of the church. I preached and electioneered alternately.”⁴

“Our mission is to visit the Eastern States and hold large meetings in every place we can. Preach the Gospel and electioneer for General Smith,” twenty-seven-year-old George Albert Smith wrote in his journal on May 9, the day he left Nauvoo. Smith was not alone. He was joined by...

“This day theNauvoo Expositorgoes forth to the world,” Mormon dissident and reformer William Law wrote in his journal on Friday, June 7, “rich with facts, such expositions as make the guilty tremble and rage. 1000 sheets were struck and five hundred mailed forthwith. If the paper is suffered to continue it will set forth deeds of the most dark, cruel and damning ever perpetrated by any people under the name of religion since the world began.”¹

The Reform movement was initiated by church members hoping to promote change within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints “without...

Joseph Smith wrote to Governor Thomas Ford on June 14. His letter was accompanied by several statements from witnesses to the razing of theExpositorreaffirming that “The whole affair was conducted by the City Marshal and his posse in the most quiet and orderly manner, without the least noise, riot or tumult.”¹

Joseph’s counselor Sidney Rigdon prepared his own confidential letter to the governor. There were “difficulties in [Nauvoo] which I have had no concern,” Rigdon began. The inevitable destruction of theExpositorpress “was done without tumult or disorder,” he said. “When the press was destroyed, all returned...

The Nauvoo company arrived at Hamilton’s Hotel just before midnight. A “great crowd” of nearly five hundred soldiers greeted them, eager to catch a glimpse of the infamous Joe Smith. The governor told the men to leave, that they would be permitted to see the Mormon prophet in the morning.

After rising early, Joseph and Hyrum surrendered themselves to the constable. At half-past eight Governor Ford assembled the troops from Hancock and surrounding counties on the square near the courthouse. Many local citizens also gathered around the square, anxious to see the prisoners. George T. M. Davis, Illinois Whig leader...

“For God’s sake come back and take away your men!” Colonel Williams cried out. His disguised militia unit was running for the safety of the trees, anxious to escape the Carthage Greys who were almost upon the jail. The wounded were just emerging into the sunlight. William Vorhees was hit in the left shoulder. Charles Gallaher was “grazed on the side of the face.” John Willis was wounded in the right wrist. “I shot Hyrum!” Willis exclaimed proudly, “and Joe shot me!” The invalids were loaded into the baggage wagons and headed west.¹

“Alight quick!” Artois Hamilton called out and...

Nauvoo remained in mourning. Following the imagined and real burials of Joseph and Hyrum a young barrel maker named William Daniels, armed with letters of introduction to “the leading men of Nauvoo,” entered the Holy City. Daniels sought out Willard Richards, one of the two Carthage survivors. He told the Mormon elder he had experienced a vision and reported that three days after the murder of Joseph Smith the martyred prophet appeared to him in a dream and took him “up into a high mountain.” As Daniels slipped in the shifting soil, “Joseph would reach out his hand and lift...

Anxious to return to their homes in Carthage and Warsaw, the Old Citizens of Hancock County slogged through the muddy roads rendered nearly impassable by the overflowing banks of the Mississippi River.¹ The high water mark had been reached on June 27, nearly a week before. That was the day the settlers abandoned their homes, fleeing the anticipated invasion by Nauvoo’s twelve thousand outraged Mormons, who were expected to burn Carthage and Warsaw to the ground in retaliation for the murder of their leaders. The returning citizens found their homesteads intact. An uneasy calm prevailed amidst the prospect of continued...

Even in the face of possible public exposure and the threat of impeachment proceedings by the Whigs in the Illinois legislature, Democratic governor Thomas Ford had little choice but to move forward with his proposed indictments against the men accused of murdering the Smith brothers. Events in Hancock County were rapidly escalating out of control.

In mid-September, flyers were distributed throughout the Military Tract inviting all armed men to participate in a “wolf hunt” scheduled to take place near Warsaw on the 26^thand 27^thof the month. The proposed wolf hunt was a common practice at the time used...

Joseph Smith’s presidential campaign did not end with his death. If there was at first some uncertainty about the political course the Saints were to take now that the prophet Joseph was no longer at the helm, indecision was shortly replaced by a renewed sense of purpose. The Mormons were to fall behind the candidate who most closely adhered to the principles and policies advocated by the slain Mormon leader. Joseph and Hyrum’s younger brother William had already taken over the editorship ofThe Prophetin New York City on June 29, before word of their murders reached the east....

Prayers for vengeance upon the murderers of Joseph and Hyrum Smith were heard from the moment the horrible news reached Nauvoo. Within days of the eventTimes and Seasonspublished a lengthy poetic eulogy by one of Joseph’s plural wives, Eliza R. Snow. It had a correspondingly long title: “The Assassination of Generals Joseph and Hyrum Smith, First Presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Who were Massacred by a Mob, In Carthage, Hancock County, Ill., on the 27^thof June, 1844.” Eliza expressed the inconsolable loss felt by many Latter-day Saints:

For never, since the Son...

Joseph Smith uttered the first four words of the Masonic distress cry as he fell from the second story window of Carthage jail. Yet none of the Masons in the mob surrounding the jail made any effort to come to his aid. That circumstance gave rise to the suspicion that there was a Masonic conspiracy to take his life, a claim voiced privately and in public by Joseph Smith’s successor, Brigham Young.

By the spring of 1844, Freemasonry had become a vital part of social and ritual life in Nauvoo. Joseph Smith firmly believed there was “similarity of priesthood in...

By late November 1844, plans were underway to organize a new political party to oppose the rising power of the Democrats. A meeting was scheduled for St. Louis in the spring anticipating the formation of an “American Republican Party” to replace the fragmented Whig organization. G. T. M. Davis violently disagreed with the strategy and remained unrepentantly Whig. “The great and important question now is, what are we as a party to do?” He wrote to John J. Hardin in Washington, D.C., requesting the congressman exert political pressure where it was most needed. “Our friends need checking and a few...