This research project is part of a collaborative multi-country research programme on rural-urban interactions, livelihood strategies and socio-economic change. The overall objectives of the programme are:

a) To increase understanding of the nature, range and scale of rural-urban interactions in selected countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with a view to promoting policies at local, national and international levels, encouraging positive interactions between rural and urban areas (intended as those benefiting sustainable growth and contributing to the elimination of poverty), whilst reducing or eliminating negative interactions; and

b) To encourage and develop the capacity of a network of research...

The main working hypothesis for the study is that rural-urban interactions are an important element of the livelihood strategies of both rural and urban households, either in the form of flows of people, goods, information and money, or in the form of income diversification such as urban agriculture and non-agricultural rural employment. Livelihood strategies which straddle the rural-urban divide are the outcome of the opportunities and constraints arising from wider transformations in the socio-economic context, and of specific and ‘local’ historical, political, socio-cultural and ecological factors. For example, spatial proximity to potential resources (for instance markets for goods and labour)...

The aim of the study is to provide a detailed, holistic picture of how the livelihood strategies of different groups straddle the rural-urban divide. In order to identify critical factors determining opportunities and constraints, two locations were selected, each consisting of an urban centre and two villages in its surrounding region. The two locations are not representative of Tanzania’s small and intermediate centres (indeed, one of the reasons for the high rates of failure of spatial planning is that they were falsely assumed to be representative). However, they can be seen as occupying the two extremes of the spectrum, with...

Given the wide range of issues covered by the study and its focus on social processes, it was necessary to adopt a methodology allowing for the combination of descriptive analysis and causal explanation. This included a combination of qualitative and quantitative tools. Although it is common practice in research design to start with quantitative data collection (in order to answer ‘what’ questions) and follow this with quantitative techniques (to answer ‘why’ questions), the team decided to avoid predetermined categorisations and to adopt as much as possible a holistic approach. This was achieved by the use of qualitative, participatory techniques in...

A one-week methodology and training workshop was held in Lindi at the beginning of the project (September 1998). The objectives of the meeting were to refresh the team’s memory of the planning workshop held in March, plan the fieldwork details and train the research team in PRA and qualitative techniques. An experienced trainer from an Indian NGO (SPEECH, based in Tamil Nadu) introduced the basic concepts of PRA, and helped the team identify tools and sequences of use. Staff from a large integrated rural development project in Lindi region were also drawn in as co-trainers and later as field assistants,...

The findings of the first phase of fieldwork were presented at a one-week review workshop, attended by three external advisers to the project, all of them professional researchers with an interest in the topic of the study. The aims of the meeting were to summarise the findings; to identify gaps in the information gathered; and to identify and develop the tools for Phase 2. As originally planned, a questionnaire survey was deemed necessary to supplement qualitative data with quantitative data and give more specific information on the differences between groups and locations. In addition, it was decided that commodity chain...

In general the use of both the PRA and quantitative tools proved valuable and stimulating, both to the researchers and to the respondents in the research. The absorption shown by focus group discussions when they felt the particular tool being used was relevant to them is proof enough of the power and importance of such tools.

However, the research also showed the importance of thinking through more carefully and adapting the instruments to be used, and pre-testing them in order to ensure maximum effectiveness. The pre-testing of the survey questionnaire not only improved the structure but gave an idea on...